George Savile, First Marquis of Halifax (1633–1695)1
George Savile, First Marquis of Halifax was born on November 11, 1633 at Thornhill Hall, near Dewsbury, Yorkshire. He was the second of seven children and the eldest son of Sir William Savile, 3rd baronet (1612-1644), a landowner. His mother was Anne, the eldest daughter of Thomas, first Baron Coventry, and Keeper of the Great Seal.2
He was christened “George” on November 28, 1633, just as all the eldest sons of the three preceding generations had been.3 The Coventry connection George obtained from his mother possessed an “unusual proportion of both ability and political interest” and was “destined to exert no small influence over the character and career” of George, who was “peculiarly susceptible to the ties of kinship”.4 In 1641 young George attended a private school in Amersham, Buckinghamshire run by Dr. Charles Croke. While George was at school his great-uncle Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford was beheaded, and George’s father was put in the Tower for a brief period of time.5 George’s father took him out of school in 1642 and left to join the king’s army at York. George’s mother eventually moved her family to Sheffield Castle, where George’s father was appointed governor. His father died in January of 1644, when George was only ten years old, and after a two-week siege of the castle in August, his mother moved the family to Rufford.6
In July of 1645, Parliament gave wardship of the body, but not the marriage of George, and £4,000 from his estate to Lord Wharton. Lord Wharton was paid in November of 1647 but because of George’s father’s “delinquency and loans” to King Charles I, George still owed more money. To escape this, he was sent to live abroad.7 In 1647 George was in France under the general supervision of Eleazar Duncon DD. Young George traveled with George Anderson, a Scottish Presbyterian tutor. He attended a Huguenot academy in Paris for a year. In addition, George spent a few months in Angers and Orleans, a year in Italy and at least two months in the Netherlands. George returned to England in 1652.8
In April of 1654 George’s family became involved in a royalist plot. His uncle, Sir John Packington, was arrested in January of 1655 for receiving shipments of weapons. On March 7, another of George’s uncles, William Coventry, rode to Rufford where about two hundred armed men had assembled at an inn. The men later fled when they were told they had been betrayed and the rising in Yorkshire had failed. Although Cromwell told the local authorities that George had been involved and should be arrested, nothing ever happened to him.9
George married Lady Dorothy, daughter of Henry Spencer, first Earl of Sunderland, on December 29, 1656. They had five children together: George (b. 1660, d. 10 months later), Henry (b. 1661), Anne (b. 1663), William (b. 1664/5), and George (b. 1667). Lady Dorothy died on December 16, 1670.10
In December of 1666, King Charles II conferred the title of “Lord Halifax” onto George Savile. The warrant seems to have been issued on December 31, 1666 and on this occasion Samuel Pepys wrote in his diary, “Sir G. Savile one of the Parliamentary Committee of nine for examining the accounts is by the King made a Lord, the Lord Halifax, which, I believe, will displease the Parliament.”11On January 28, 1668 Halifax was given the title of Viscount.12
On April 17, 1672, a month after the declaration of war against the Dutch, Halifax was admitted to the Privy Council. Around November 19, 1672 Halifax married Gertrude (1640/41-1727), daughter of William Pierrepont of Thoresby, a politician before the restoration, and they had one daughter, Elizabeth, in 1675.13 The title of Marquis was bestowed upon Halifax in 1682 and this event “…nearly coincided with the first marriage in his own family. On August 10 Nan Savile married Lord Vaughn, eldest son of the Earl of Carbery,” which created “considerable political excitement.”14 On July 26, 1679 Halifax received the title “Earl of Halifax.”15 And on September 1, 1682 he was made Marquis of Halifax.16
In May of 1683, Queen Catherine of Braganza, the wife of King Charles II, appointed Halifax to her privy council and in April of 1684 she made him the keeper of her great seal.17 Near the end of 1684 Lords York, Portsmouth, Sunderland and Barrillon worked together to try to get Charles to dismiss Halifax, but he never did (presumably Charles hoped that Halifax would leave on his own) and in February of 1685 on the evening King Charles II was taken gravely ill, the two were seen “laughing as they walked side by side from the council chamber to Portsmouth's lodgings.”18
When King Charles II died, his younger brother, the Duke of York, became King James II of England. Under Charles II, Halifax had held the office of Lord Privy Seal. Though James had once fought for Halifax’s dismissal, he thought it sensible to have him in office when Parliament met. On February 18, 1685 Halifax was “kicked upstairs” from the office of Lord Privy Seal to the office of Lord President. Clarendon was given the Privy Seal and Rochester the position of Lord Treasurer—it seems that James’s brothers-in-law were rewarded at Halifax’s expense.19 Although Lord President of the Council had historically taken precedence over the Lord Privy Seal, Halifax’s change in position was considered a demotion since the Lord Privy Seal was much more important than the Lord President at the time.20
Halifax learned privately of King James II’s conversion to Catholicism.21 Shortly after this, James, who had been appointing people to office in violation of the Test Act, announced he no longer felt bound by the Test Act; he wanted Parliament to repeal the Test Act; and even if Parliament refused to repeal the Act he would continue to have his way. At the Council Board, Halifax voiced his disgust and concern with the King’s statements. No one seconded him and so the matter was dropped (later, though, all of England would agree with Halifax).22 Halifax stated, “I am against all religious disabilities. But it is better to endure unjust exclusion from office than to put the King above the law.”23
After these exclamations, James II called Halifax into the royal closet to talk and try to win him over, but Halifax stood his ground. Halifax said he would not give his vote in the House of Lords to repeal either the Test Act or the Habeas Corpus Act. Some of the King’s advisors told James it would be extremely foolish to dismiss Halifax from his position in Parliament as Lord President. The advisors wisely pointed out that so long as Halifax was Lord President he would be too busy to oppose the King, but once unburdened by the duties of his office, he would have ample time to resist him. Despite this sound advice, the King removed Halifax’s name from the Council Book and told him he was no longer needed. Halifax’s dismissal caused a stir in England as well as Paris, Vienna and The Hague. King Louis XIV of France was delighted by this news because Halifax was known to have worked hard to curb Louis’s influence on England.24 The dismissal of Halifax led to some of the Tories and some of the army officers questioning the King’s authority. Churchill later would whisper that the King had gone too far.25
On April 4, 1687 King James II made a Declaration of Indulgence which suspended the penal laws for religious dissenters, allowed people to worship in places other than the established Church of England and abolished the requirement that people take various religious oaths before being appointed to a civil or military office. This Declaration came directly from the King, and had not been voted on by Parliament.26 Because of this, it did not have any real legal meaning, and the religious dissenters (those that did not adhere to the doctrine of the Church of England) would have been foolish to rely on it, as the King could have it revoked at any time.27 The dissenters needed a valid Declaration of Indulgence secured by Parliament. Halifax realized this, and in response to James’s actions, he anonymously published the famous Letter to a Dissenter in September of 1687.28
In Letter to a Dissenter, Halifax presented all of the arguments in favor of the idea that it was in the best interest of, and the duty of a dissenter to prefer an alliance with the Church rather than to rely on the King’s illegal declaration. The Letter to a Dissenter was only a one-sided broadsheet, but there were over 20,000 copies printed and it was widely circulated.29 It went through six editions and prompted twenty-four replies.30 Over a century later, Lord Macaulay would refer to Halifax as “the real author of the Revolution” and say that he had “a peculiar gift for anticipating the judgment of posterity.”31
Later in 1687, Halifax would meet frequently with Danby (with whom “there was an enmity which began in the court of Charles, and which, at a later period disturbed the court of William, but which, like many other enmities, remained suspended during the tyranny of James”32) in the councils held by Dykvelt and they would agree in their dislike of James’s policy and on their preference for William of Orange.33
On March 7, 1688, James II penned a second Declaration of Indulgence in which he reiterated the Declaration of the previous April. At first the declaration caused little stir, but on the 4th of May James made an Order in Council that the ministers of all the churches and chapels in the kingdom must read his Declaration in church.34 Halifax believed that any resistance on the part of clergymen or others would be “ruinous to individuals and of little advantage to the Church and to the nation”35. The King’s declaration was published and sold an exceptional number of copies in a few hours.
Later that same day, another letter was published, printed secretly and widely circulated. The anonymous author acknowledged the grave danger of disobeying the crown but made the point that greater still was the “danger of submission.” The author wrote, “If we read the Declaration, we fail to rise no more. We fall unpitied and despised. We fall amidst the curses of a nation whom our compliance will have ruined.”36 Though the people argued over where the paper came from, “Prideaux, Dean of Norwich, who was a principal agent in distributing it, believed it to be the work of Halifax.”37
The Anatomy of an Equivalent, one of Halifax’s most famous writings, was published anonymously in the summer of 1688. The Anatomy of an Equivalent dealt with Halifax’s concern over James’s attempts to repeal the Test Acts of 1673 and 1678.38 In this writing, Halifax set out to examine the “nature of a true Equivalent” and “what things are not to be admitted under that denomination”. To the extent that the notion of an Equivalent had been used to criticize his Letter to a Dissenter, Anatomy could be considered as Halifax’s rebuttal.39
In late 1688, King James II summoned all Lords, Spiritual and Temporal, in London to ask their advice on the matter of William, Prince of Orange. They met on a Tuesday afternoon in the dining room of the palace. The Lords Spiritual and Temporal consisted of nine prelates and between thirty and forty noblemen.40 Lord Halifax was in attendance. Many of the advisors told James that his only hope for keeping the throne was to look to Parliament, and open negotiations with the Prince of Orange, but Halifax took a different position. Because of Halifax’s “…serene intellect, singularly unsusceptible of enthusiasm, and singularly averse to extremes” he began lean toward James’s side “…at the very moment at which those noisy Royalists who had lately execrated the Trimmers as little better than rebels, were everywhere rising in rebellion.”41 Halifax desired to be a “peace maker” of sorts between James II and the people of the Kingdom. Lord Macaulay would later write that Halifax’s “…talents and character fitted him for that office; and, if he failed, the failure is to be ascribed to causes against which no human skill could contend, and chiefly to the folly, faithlessness, and obstinacy of the Prince whom he tried to save.”42
King James II appointed Halifax to the post of Commissioner, with orders to speak with William of Orange. James told Halifax he was ready to make sacrifices for peace.43 James wished Halifax to “ inform the Prince of the proposed session; to remind him that a free Parliament had been the ostensible object of his expedition; and to promise that all conditions which could be reasonably required for the security of those attending should be complied with.”44 Furthermore, Halifax and his companions, “were to announce, as the motive of their embassy, the King’s desire of entering into a Treaty for that purpose….They were especially directed to insist that the respective armies should be stationed out of London until after the Session.”45
When Halifax and the other King’s Commissioners arrived on December 28, 1688 at Hungerford, where Prince William was staying, they were escorted into William’s bedchamber, where he was “surrounded by a crowd of noblemen and gentlemen.” 46 Halifax, being the most advanced in rank, spoke. He told William that James wished the “points in dispute” to be “referred to the Parliament” and for William’s army to stay at least thirty to forty miles away from London during this time.47 Halifax then left William with a letter from the King. The next day, on the 29th of December, William handed Halifax a letter with his demands to deliver to King James.48 Halifax was very desirous of a negotiation between James and William, and was quite hopeful that he should be the one to bring it about.
Halifax returned to London to find his feelings changed. William had offered terms to James that were more than fair, and yet, Halifax had been deceived. His mission to Hungerford had been in vain—the King never intended to negotiate with William or to abide by any of his own terms. Macaulay says of Halifax, “…the eloquent an ingenious Trimmer might flatter himself that she should be able to mediate between infuriated factions, to dictate a compromise between extreme opinions….he had been deceived, and had been used as an instrument for deceiving the nation.”49 While Halifax was in Hungerford, James had “burned the writs, made away with the seal, let loose the army, suspended the administration of justice, dissolved the government, and fled from the capital.”50 Halifax realized that reconciliation between William and James would prove impossible. He also, “felt, it may be suspected, the vexation natural to a man widely renowned for wisdom, who finds that he has been duped by an understanding immeasurably inferior to his own, and the vexation natural to a great master of ridicule, who finds himself placed in a ridiculous situation.”51 This was the turning point for Halifax. He ceased trying to be the peacemaker, and instead, placed himself “at the head of those who were bent on bringing William to the throne.”52
With James in flight, several of the Lords came together to serve as Provisional Government in the absence of the King; Halifax was among them. On December 26, 1688 James returned to London on the advice of friends and took up residence at Whitehall Palace—William was stationed at St. James’s Palace at this time. Halifax and the other Lords making up the Provisional Government decided it was too dangerous to have William and James in such close proximity. It was therefore decided that James be moved out of London.53 William also desired this, for he believed that James, once outside London, might venture to run away again, leaving William in a position to claim the throne.
James later fled to France, forever abandoning his hopes of regaining the monarchy, and leaving William in the position he so desired. In January of 1689, the Convention met and the Lords elected Halifax speaker. As speaker, it was his formal duty to offer the crowns to William and Mary; he had also written their speech of acceptance pursuant to his other role of confidential advisor.54 On February 2, 1689 the queen dowager appointed Halifax as her Chancellor and Lord Keeper. On February 28, 1689 William III signed the warrant that would make Halifax Lord Privy Seal, effective March 8, 1689. The Parliament made motions to depose him from his offices, but they failed. Halifax was dismissed on June 23, 1692.55
On March 31, 1695 Halifax ate a piece of undercooked chicken, most likely at his home. After eating the chicken, a “…violent fit of vomiting pushed his constipated intestine through an old rupture, and gangrene set in.”56 Halifax’s condition became increasingly worse, but he refused to notify his son, who was soon to be married. Halifax was worried that news of his illness would cause his son’s wedding to be delayed. Halifax, “took the Anglican sacrament and asked forgiveness for the scandal caused by his loose way of talking about religion.” By the time his son arrived on April 5th, he was no longer able to speak, and he died one hour later. He was buried on April 11th in Westminster Abbey.57
Bibliography
Mark N. Brown, The Works of George Savile Marquis of Halifax (Clarendon Press) (1989).
Sir Bernard Burke, The Dormant, Abeyant, Forfeited, and Extinct Peerages (Burke’s Peerage/ Genealogical Publishing Co.) (1883) (Reprinted in 1985)
1-2 Helen Charlotte Foxcroft, Life and Letters of George Savile First Marquis of Halifax (Longmans, Green and co.) (1898)
Thomas Babington Macaulay, The History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879).
Sir George Savile (1583-1614), Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004).
Herbert Paul, Men and Letters (John Lane) (1901).
1All dates are in New Style
2 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
3 1 Helen Charlotte Foxcroft, Life and Letters of George Savile First Marquis of Halifax (Longmans, Green and co.) (1898) at 9
4 1 Helen Charlotte Foxcroft, Life and Letters of George Savile First Marquis of Halifax (Longmans, Green and co.) (1898) at 8
5 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
6 Id.
7 Id.
8 Id.
9 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
10 Id.
11 1 Helen Charlotte Foxcroft, Life and Letters of George Savile First Marquis of Halifax (Longmans, Green and co.) (1898) at 56
12 Sir Bernard Burke, The Dormant, Abeyant, Forfeited, and Extinct Peerages (Burke’s Peerage/ Genealogical Publishing Co.) (1883) (Reprinted in 1985) at 475
13 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
14 1 Mark n. Brown, the Works of George Savile Marquis of Halifax (Clarendon Press) (1989) at 362
15 Sir Bernard Burke, The Dormant, Abeyant, Forfeited, and Extinct Peerages (Burke’s Peerage/ Genealogical Publishing Co.) (1883) (Reprinted in 1985) at 475
16 Id.
17 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
18 Id.
19 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
20 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879) Ch. 4 at 411
21 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
22 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879) Ch. 6 at 22
23 Herbert Paul, Men and Letters (John Lane) (1901) at 214
24 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879) Ch. 6 at 23
25 Id. Ch. 6 at 24
26 Id. Ch. 7 at 201
27 Id. Ch. 7 at 203
28 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
29 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879), Ch. 7 at 206
30 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
31 Herbert Paul, Men and Letters (John Lane) (1901) at 209
32 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879), Ch. 7 at 233-234
33 Id. Ch. 7 at 234
34 Id. Ch. 7 at 320-321
35 Id. Ch. 8 at 322
36 Id. Ch. 8 at 328
37 Id. Ch. 8 at 328
38 1 Mark N. Brown, the Works of George Savile Marquis of Halifax (Clarendon Press) (1989) at 90
39 1 Mark N. Brown, the Works of George Savile Marquis of Halifax (Clarendon Press) (1989) at 97-98
40 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879), Ch. 9 at 479
41 Id. Ch. 9 at 481
42 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879), Ch. 9 at 481
43 Id. Ch. 9 at 483
44 2 Helen Charlotte Foxcroft, Life and Letters of George Savile First Marquis of Halifax (Longmans, Green and co.) (1898) at 22-23
45 Id. at 23
46 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879), Ch. 9 at 496
47 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879), Ch. 9 at 496
48 Id. Ch. 9 at 500
49 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879), Ch. 10 at 523
50 Id.
51 Thomas Babington Macaulay, the History of England from the Accession of James the Second (1848) (Reprinted in 1879), Ch. 10 at 524
52 Id. Ch. 10 at 524
53 Id. Ch. 10 at 531
54 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
55 Oxford Dictionary National Biography (Oxford University Press; Online ed. 2004)
56 Id.
57 Id.